The Resource Center:

Resource Menu The AAP Library GLAHRC Nationwide Youth Services HIV. Live With It.. Campaign Resource Center Main

The AAP Library
Take advantage of these resources on various health issues related to adolescents. Some of these resources were authored and/or coauthored by members of the AAP staff (including several books, book chapters, and articles).

Order a copy of the award-winning book, Lesbian and Gay Youth: Care and Counseling, Ryan, C. & Futterman, D. (1998), at a special discounted price of $20 plus shipping charges. Order it now!

Scientific Journal Articles on Youth and HIV
Chabon, B. & Futterman, D. (1999). Adolescents and HIV. AIDS Clinical Care, 11 (2), 9-16.

Futterman, D., Hein, K., Reuben, N., Dell, R., Shaffer, N. (1993). Human immunodeficiency virus-infected adolescents: The first 50 patients in a New York City program. Pediatrics, 91 (4), 730-735.

Hoffman, N. D. & Futterman, D. (1993). Human immunodeficiency virus infection in adolescents. Seminars in Pediatric Infectious Diseases, 4 (2), 113-121.

Hoffman, N., Futterman, D. & Myerson, A. (1999). Treatment issues for HIV-positive adolescents. AIDS Clinical Care, 11 (3), 17-24.

Rogers, A. S., Futterman, D., Levin, L., D’Angelo, L. (1996). A profile of human immunodeficiency virus-infected adolescents receiving health care services at selected sites in the United States. Journal of Adolescent Health, 19, 401-408.

Ryan, C. & Futterman, D. (1998). Caring for gay and lesbian teens. Contemporary Pediatrics, 15 (11), 107-130.
Journal edition written by AAP staff re: development and implementation of adolescent-specific HIV/AIDS program:

Kunins, H, Hein, K., Futterman, D., Tapley, E., & Elliot, A. S. (1993). Guide to Adolescent HIV/AIDS Program Development. Journal of Adolescent Health, 14 (5, Supplement), 1-140.

Gay and Lesbian Youth
Below is a listing of resources

Alexander, C. J. (1998). Studying the experiences of gay and lesbian youth. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services, 8 (2), 69-72. Explores how gay, lesbian, and bisexual youth are integrated into society. The sexual minority youth of today have greater opportunities for development and acceptance than older gays and lesbians had, however, gay youth are still at high risk for confusion, societal pressure, and feelings of self-destruction and isolation.

Anderson, A. L. (1998). Strengths of gay male youth: An untold story. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 15 (1), 55-71. This exploratory study found that gay male youths develop strengths that enable them to successfully cope with the challenges and stresses associated with their overall development. These internal and external resources were (1) protective in nature, (2) indicated the presence of resilience, and (3) assisted participants in managing their sexual orientation in adolescence. Bivariate analysis revealed participants had positive self-esteem and an interval locus of control comparable to, or better than, youths overall. Age, social support from gay, lesbian, and bisexual friends and from family, and a preadolescent sense of difference were significantly correlated with self-esteem and/or locus of control.

Anderson, D. A. (1994). Lesbians and gay adolescents: Social development considerations. High School Journal, 77 (1-2), 13-19. There are adolescents who have already identified themselves as predominately homosexual, or who will later come to so identify themselves. For these adolescents, social and emotional development during adolescence are likely to differ in significant ways. There is almost no prospective research on the development of sexual orientation. The studies of gay and lesbian adolescents that have been done seem to confirm that a similar process is taking place. The author discusses these similarities in terms of homosexual arousal and behavior, homosexual experiences, heterosexual experiences, awareness of homoerotocism, coming out to others, developing a lesbian or gay identity, cross gender behavior and peer relationships.

Anderson, D. A. (1987). Family and peer relations of gay adolescents. Adolescent Psychiatry, 14, 162-178. In this paper, the author describes a support group for gay adolescence and some of the special issues of development that confront these young people. There is a description of the group itself, members relationships with their families including hiding from parents as well as parental reactions, anger, and guilt. Case examples are used to illustrate both the family relations as well as the adolescent’s own process of acknowledgement.

Anderson, J. D. (1997). Supporting the invisible minority. Educational Leadership, 54, 65-68. A hidden minority group of gay and lesbian students attend our schools. This article is the story of pioneering educators in Stratford, Connecticut, who have provided a leadership model to meet the needs of these students. Their techniques include the coming out of leadership, professional development, library resources, curriculum support, and adding homosexuality to the health curriculum.
Anderson, J. D. (1994). Including gay/lesbian students and staff. The Education Digest, 60, 35-39. Homophobia comes in many flavors. Some people are simply hateful, but most are not. The conspiracy of silence is not based on malice. There are too many good people in education for that to be true. This article shows how to create a supportive environment through professional development, support staff and services, including sexuality in the health care curriculum, the general curriculum and the library.

Anderson, L. R., & Randlet, L. (1994). Self-monitoring, perceived control and satisfaction with self-disclosure of sexual orientation. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 9 (4), 789-800. A survey of 155 lesbians, gay men and bisexual men and women included the Revised Self-Monitoring Scale, the Interpersonal Control Scale and items assessing satisfaction with the process of coming out. We predicted (1) high self-monitors would be more satisfied than low self-monitors with the process of self-disclosing nontraditional sexual orientations, and (2) the relationship between self-monitoring and satisfaction would be enhanced when high self-monitors also had high perceived control. Both hypotheses were supported. Moderated regressions, controlling demographics, indicated self-monitoring Factor A was significantly related to satisfaction with disclosure of sexual orientation. Perceived control produced significant interactions with both self-monitoring Factor A and Factor B in relation to satisfaction. Conclusions suggest that high self-monitors were more satisfied because they employed a situation-specific strategy for disclosing or not disclosing their sexual orientations. A heightened sense of interpersonal control would then bolster confidence and accuracy of high self-monitor’s situational tactics for divulging their sexual orientations.

Anderson, L. R., & Randlet, L. (1993). Self-monitoring and life satisfaction of individuals with traditional and nontraditional sexual orientations. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 14 (3), 345-361. Our previous work found that high self-monitoring enhanced the job effectiveness of individuals in gender non-traditional occupations, such as men in nursing and women in management. This study tested whether self-monitoring would enhance the life satisfaction of individuals with nontraditional sexual orientations: lesbians and gay men. The Revised Self-monitoring Scale and the Life Satisfaction Index were completed by 1332 gay and lesbian individuals and by 137 heterosexuals. Moderated regressions indicated self-monitoring was significantly related to life satisfaction of all individuals but there was no interaction with sexual orientation. Significant interactions between self-monitoring, gender, and relationship status indicated self-monitoring Factor A, and Factor B, Sensitivity to the Expressive Behavior of Others, bolstered the life satisfaction of all women in relationships. Regardless of sexual orientation, women had higher life satisfaction scores than men. The failure of the principal hypothesis suggests that the previously identified enhancement effect of self-monitoring may be limited to public occupational roles where social skills of impression management are requisite to effective job performance. The enhancement effect may not extend to private aspects of personal identity. [SOD]

Arnett, J. J. (1999). Adolescent storm and stress, reconsidered. American Psychologist, 54 (5), 317-326. G. S. Hall’s (1904) view that adolescence is a period of heightened “storm and stress” is reconsidered in light of contemporary research. The author provides a brief history of the storm-and-stress view and examines 3 key aspects of this view: conflict with parents, moff disrcuptions, and risk behavior. In all 3 areas, evidence supports a modified storm-and-stress view that takes into account individual differences and cultural variations. Not all adolescents experience storm and stress, but storm and stress is more likely during adolescence than at other ages. Adolescent storm and stress tends to be lower in traditional cultures than in the West but may increase as globalization increases individualism. Similar issues apply to minority cultures in American society. Finally, although the general public is sometimes portrayed by scholars as having a stereotypical view of adolescent storm and stress, both scholars and the general public appear to support a modified storm-and-stress view.

Bailey, N. J., & Phariss, T. (1996). Gay students in middle school. The Education Digest, 62, 46-49. In 1993, the National Middle School Association resolved to encourage middle schools to gather information on school politics and programs on the needs and problems of gay, lesbian, and bisexual youth. The authors briefly summarize some of the statistics they found. They also list several suggestion by educator James T. Sears and Kevin Jennings (Executive Director of the Gay, Lesbian, Straight Education Network) for making positive changes in the schools.

Bartholow, B. N., Doll, L. S., Joy, D., Douglas, J. M., Bolan, G., Harrison, J. S.,. Moss, P. M., & McKirnan, D. (1994). Emotional, behavioral, and HIV risks associated with sexual abuse among adult homosexual and bisexual men. Child Abuse & Neglect, 18 (9), 747-761. From May 1989 through April 1990, 1,001 adult homosexual and bisexual men attending urban sexually transmitted disease clinics were interviewed regarding abusive sexual contacts during childhood and adolescence. Sexual abuse was found to be significantly associated with mental health counseling and hospitalization, psychoactive substance abuse, depression, suicidal thought or action, social support, sexual identity development, HIV risk behavior including unprotected anal intercourse and injecting drug use, and risk of sexually transmitted diseases including HIV infection. Data suggest that sexual abuse may have a wide-ranging influence on the quality of life and health risk behavior of homosexual men. Increased awareness as to the potential outcomes of male sexual abuse is critically important to the design and implementation of medical and psychological services for sexually abused men.

Bauman, S., & Sachs-Kapp, P. (1998). A school takes a stand: Promotion of sexual orientation workshops by counselors. Professional School Counseling, 1 (3), 42-45. The authors describe a program in which students organize and facilitate school-wide workshops on such pertinent topics as racism, gender equity, and religious discrimination. The most effective and controversial of these events were those that focussed on sexual orientation, which is the focus of the paper. The school counselors assumed responsibility for recruiting and training students to be leaders in this endeavor.

Berger, R. M. (1990). Passing: Impact on the quality of same-sex couple relationships. Social Worker, 35 (4), 328-332. Passing is the social process by which gay men and lesbians present themselves to the world as heterosexuals. A questionnaire survey of same-sex couples, recruited through a national support organization, examined the impact of passing on relationship quality. Passing was not related to self-reported love for partner. However, respondents who were known to significant others as homosexual were more likely to report satisfaction with their relationships. Social workers providing services to gay and lesbian couples are alerted to the primary role played by significant others in the same-sex couple relationship.

Berger, R. M. (1992). Passing and Social Support Among Gay Men. Journal of Homosexuality, 23 (3), 85-97. One hundred sixty-six gay men responded to a questionnaire survey which asked them to describe their social networks and the extent to which they “passed” (were assumed to be heterosexual) among network members. Most gay men were known as gay to most members of their networks; however, friends, siblings and persons close to respondents were more likely to be aware of their homosexuality than co-workers, parents, and more distant relatives. Gay men were more satisfied with social support available from those who knew of their sexual orientation. The author concludes that passing has important and complex effects on the social networks of gay men.

Bieschke, K. J., & Matthews, C. (1996). Career counselor attitudes and behaviors toward gay, lesbian, and bisexual clients. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 48, 243-255. In the past few years there has been an increase in journal articles discussing the unique career concerns of those who identify themselves as gay, lesbian, or bisexual. Articles have also examined the variables that may influence counselor responsiveness to such concerns. Nonetheless, there is no empirical evidence that documents the extent to which career counselors perceive themselves to engage in behaviors that are affirmative of gay, lesbian, and bisexual clients. This study surveyed 106 career counselors as university career counseling centers. Regression analyses were conducted to determine the factors predictive of higher levels of culturally affirmative behavior with clients who identified themselves as gay, lesbian, or bisexual, and with all clients. With both populations, the most predictive factors were an organizational climate that is nonheterosexist and the counselor’s sexual orientation. A significant predictor of culturally affirmative behaviors with all clients was the extent to which counselors defined a broad diversity of populations as cultural minorities. The implications of these results as well as limitations and needs for further research are discussed.

Black, J., & Underwood, J. (1998). Young, female, and gay: Lesbian students and the school environment. Professional School Counseling, 1 (3), 15-20. Lesbian youth are particularly vulnerable to nonexistence, as they are frequently not acknowledged during their adolescence. As a female, the lesbian youth is expected to adhere to a sexist code of obedience, silence, and invisibility. For many lesbians, successful completion of adolescent development won’t occur until later in life. The authors discuss the lesbian adolescent in terms of homophobia, identity development, isolation and passing, coming out, and minority issues. They also suggest strategies and provide resources for school counselors in terms of direct-intervention, staff development, educating parents and families of lesbian students, and enriching the school environment.

Blumenfeld, W. J. (1994). "Gay/straight" alliances: Transforming pain to pride. High School Journal, 77 (1-2), 113-121. This article describes how gay/straight alliances are being formed in high schools. It talks about the pain behind the need for such groups, and the pride that can develop in all the student participants if and when the groups are allowed to flourish.

Bolton, F. G., & MacEachron, A. E. (1988). Adolescent male sexuality: A developmental perspective. Journal of Adolescent Research, 3 (3-4), 259-273. Viewed from a developmental perspective, adolescent male sexuality is the time of transition from childhood experimentation to satisfactory adult sexuality. This transition is often difficult because of misinformation or lack of empirically accurate information about sexuality, cultural expectations of masculinity defined by gender roles, and differential parental and peer socialization of males from infancy through adolescence. The quest for adult masculinity and sexuality for adolescent males is further complicated by a social context that exaggerates fears of femininity and homophobia and that overlooks their sexual behavior in the areas of adolescent fatherhood and adolescent sexual offenders. [SOD]

Borhek, M. V. (1988). Helping gay and lesbian adolescents and their families: A mother's perspective. Journal of Adolescent Health Care, 9 (2), 123-128. Gay and lesbian youths confront a number of difficult problems, including telling their parents about their sexual orientation and helping their families adjust to the news. Ineffective communication, poor self-esteem, and unresolved grief and anger often complicate the adolescents telling his or her parents. Frequently, misinformation about homosexuality, religious beliefs, and homophobia adversely influence parental reactions. Impediments to the relationship between parents and sexual-minority youth are discussed, and strategies to promote positive family adjustment are presented.

Boxer, A. M., & Cohler, B. J. (1989). The life course of gay and lesbian youth: An immodest proposal for the study of lives. Journal of Homosexuality, 17 (3-4), 315-355. The authors raise questions about several fundamental assumptions and methods regarding study of the development of gay and lesbian youth. Primary among these are the validity of the reliance on respondent’s recollections regarding their childhood and adolescent experiences; inferences about developmental processes and outcomes made on the basis of cross-sectional samples; the time-specific, cohort-bound nature of many previous constructs and findings; and the persistent search for continuities between childhood gender behavior and adult sexual orientation. In consequence, the emerging body of theory is largely a developmental psychology of the remembered past. Strategies are suggested for longitudinal, prospective research on homosexual adolescents, shifting attention from child-based, casual models to those of adolescent and adult-centered perspectives. Aimed at understanding life changes and the developmental processes and course of negotiating them, longitudinal methods will more accurately reflect current experiences of gay and lesbian youth coming of age in a unique historical context. Findings from studies of the life course have direct implications for modification of current developmental theories, particularly those that can inform gay and lesbian-sensitive clinical services for all age groups. [SOD]

Braverman, P. K., & Strasburger, V. C. (1993). Adolescent sexual activity. Clinical Pediatrics, 32 (11), 658-668. Adolescents are becoming sexually active at younger ages. One half of the adolescents in the United States are sexually active. This article reviews adolescent sexual activity, including rates of sexual activity, sexual practices, gay and lesbian youth, and factors affecting the initiation of sexual activity. In addition, adolescent pregnancy, with possible outcomes and effects on teen parents and their offspring, is discussed.

Bridget, J., & Lucille, S. (1996). Lesbian youth support information service (LYSIS): Developing a distance support agency for young lesbians. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 6, 355-364. The Lesbian Youth Support Information Service (LYSIS) was established in 1991 as a result of research conducted into the needs and experiences of young lesbians. This research found that young lesbians are vulnerable to mental health problems, including depression, attempted suicide, self-harming behaviours and alcohol misuse, as well as isolation and social rejection. There were also strong indications that young lesbians are most vulnerable when they are coming to terms with their sexual orientation. LYSIS offers support to young lesbians in four main ways: correspondence counseling, telephone counseling; peer support; and information. LYSIS is part of an umbrella organization, the Lesbian Information Service (LIS), which provides indirect support for young lesbians including publishing, education and training, projects and campaigning.

Carballo-Dieguez, A. (1989). Hispanic culture, gay male culture, and AIDS: Counseling implications. Journal of Counseling and Development, 68, 26-30. The AIDS epidemic is affecting Hispanics in disproportionately high numbers. High-risk sexual behavior conducive to HIV infection seems to continue taking place among Hispanic gay men. This article presents some necessary considerations when counseling this population.

Carre, N., Deveau, C., Belanger, F., Boufassa, F., Persoz, A., Jadand, C., Rouzioux, C., Delfraissy, J., Bucquet, D., & the SEROCO study group. (1994). Effect of age and exposure group on the onset of AIDS in heterosexual and homosexual HIV-infected patients. AIDS, 8, 797-802. This multicenter prospective cohort study involved 443 subjects whose date of HIV infection was known to within +1 year. Individuals whose sexual behavior was exclusively homosexual after HIV infection constituted the heterosexual group (n=131). AIDS-free survival was compared with that of men (n=312) infected through homosexual sex and who continued homosexual activity after HIV infection. They constituted the homosexual group. The end-point was the onset of an AIDS-defining illness listed in the 1987 revised Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) criteria. Using the Kaplan-Meier method, AIDS-free survival curves were plotted for three age categories (<20, 20-39, >40 years). A Cox Model was used to quantify the effect of age and to assess the influence of exposure group on AIDS onset after adjustment for age. Because of the high incidence of Kaposi’s sarcoma (KS) among homosexual men, a disease that can be an early AIDS-defining illness, multivariate analysis was performed with and without consideration of the occurrence of KS. Patients aged >40years at seroconversion progressed more rapidly to AIDS than younger patients. When age was fitted as a continuous variable and adjusted for exposure group, the relative risk of developing AIDS by any time after seroconversion was 1.34 for a 10-year increase difference. After adjustment for age, the relative risk of developing AIDS (CDC criteria) was 2.42 among the homosexual men. All cases of KS (n=19) involved the homosexual group. Excluding KS as a first manifestation of AIDS, homosexual or bisexual subjects had a risk of AIDS of 1.92 compared with heterosexual subjects. The risk of AIDS increases with age at seroconversion. The more rapid progression towards AIDS in the homosexual group than in the heterosexual group persisted after adjustment for age. Further studies are required to determine the possible role of repeated exposure to HIV or other pathogens acquired sexually.

Casper, V., Cuffaro, H. K., Schultz, S., Silin, J. G. et al (1996). Toward a most thorough understanding of the world: Sexual orientation and early childhood education. Harvard Educational Review, 66 (2), 271-293. Written collaboratively by five educators from the Bank Street College of Education, this article focuses on sexual orientation and early childhood education, an issue that is often overlooked. The authors describe research projects they have undertaken to explore elementary school teachers’ thoughts and attitudes about sexual orientation in relation to children’s sexuality and parents’ sexual orientation. Building from there, they examine the connections between teachers’ reflections of their own childhood experience and their current attitudes toward sexual orientation. They then move from exploring adult conceptions of family to examining those of children. Finally, the authors describe the process of transformation at Bank Street College as the institution struggled to include gay and lesbian lives in the early childhood and graduate school curriculum. Throughout the article, the authors continually connect their proactive stance for inclusion around sexual orientation with their larger vision of a more just and equitable society. [SOD]

Cates, J. A. (1987). Adolescent sexuality: Gay and lesbian issues. Child Welfare, 66 (4), 353-364. Dynamics and interventions with adolescents who express concern regarding gay/lesbian issues are described, with a focus both intrapsychic and social. Both psychological and emotional aspects of sexual preference, and cultural and social expectations for those who identify themselves as gay of lesbian are considered.

Chekola, M. (1994). Outing, truth-telling, and the shame of the closet. Journal of Homosexuality, 27(3-4), 67-90. This essays examines the nature of being in the closet, coming out, and the practice of outing. It is argues that no general rule against outing can be maintained since outing others may be defensible as one pursues one’s own legitimate legal and moral interests. Neither does privacy extend to all aspects of human life which someone may wish to keep secret, especially if information about sexual orientation is not obtained in any immoral way. Withholding information about sexual orientation may sometimes be justified but on grounds of secrecy and not in a way that always forbids outing. The shame and degradation of the closet are evils, but outing is not necessarily their solution, though any loss of “privacy” entailed by coming out of the closet can be more than compensated by the rewards of casting off implications of worthlessness.

Christensen, S., & Sorenson, L. M. (1994). Effects of a multi-factor education program on the attitude of child and youth worker students toward gays and lesbians. Child and Youth Care Forum, 23 (2), 119-133. Reports for gay and lesbian youth suggest that negative attitudes of caregivers impair their effectiveness. A program addressing attitudes, behavior and cognitions was designed to effect and maintain positive attitudes toward their client group. Thirty-five child and youth worker students participated in one of two 6-hour programs: one provided increased exposure to gay/lesbian lives; the other examined youth suicide. Change was assessed in two post-tests. Experimental subjects had significantly more positive scores on the affective and cognitive measures, but did not differ on the behavioral measure. Group means on all three measures did not differ significantly four weeks later. These results indicate negative attitudes can be moderated. Means of maintaining this positive change are suggested and implications for the education of service providers are discussed.

Chung, Y. B., & Katayama, M. (1998). Ethnic and sexual identity development of Asian American lesbian and gay adolescents. Professional School Counseling, 1 (3), 21-25. Counseling issues pertaining to lesbian and gay adolescents have received increased attention in the literature during the past few years yet the impact of ethnicity has largely been ignored. The purpose of this article is to discuss the ethnic and sexual identity development and the interaction between the two identities among Asian-American lesbian and gay adolescents.

Cohen, L, de Ruiter, C., Ringelberg, H., & Cohen-Kettenis, P. T. (1997). Psychological functioning of adolescent transsexuals: Personality and psychopathology. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 53 (2), 187-196. Adolescent transsexuals were compared with adolescent psychiatric outpatients and first-year university students to determine the extent to which other psychopathology is a necessary condition for the development of transsexualism. These areas of psychological functioning associated with fundamental psychological disturbances – perceptual inaccuracy, disorders of thought and negative self-image – were assessed by means of the Rorschach Comprehensive System. The group of adolescent transsexuals was found to be intermediate between adolescent psychiatric patients and nonpatients for extent of perceptual inaccuracy. They did not differ significantly from nonpatients with regard to thinking disturbances and negative self-image. The psychiatric patients included significantly more individuals characterized by negative self image than the other groups. The results support the idea that major psychopathology is not required for the development of transsexualism.

Cole, S. W., Kemeny, M. E., Taylor, S. E., Visscher, B. R. (1996). Elevated physical health risk among gay men who conceal their homosexual identity. Health Psychology, 15 (4), 243-251. This study examined the incidence of infectious and neoplastic diseases among 222 HIV-seronegative gay men who participated in the Natural History of AIDS Psychosocial Study. Those who concealed the expression of their homosexual identity experienced a significantly higher incidence of cancer (odds ratio = 3.18) and several infectious diseases (pneumonia, bronchitis, sinusitis, and tuberculosis; odds ratio = 2.91) over a 5-year follow-up period. These effects could not be attributed to differences in age, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, repressive coping style, health-relevant behavioral patterns (e.g., drug use, exercise), anxiety, depression, or reporting biases (e.g., negative affectivity, social desirability). Results are interpreted in the context of previous data linking concealed homosexual identity to other physical health outcomes (e.g., HIV progression and psychosomatic symptomatology) and theories linking psychological inhibition to physical illness.

Coleman, E. (1989). The development of male prostitution activity among gay and bisexual adolescents. Journal of Homosexuality, 17 (1-2), 131-149. The current research literature regarding male-juvenile prostitution activity is reviewed. An attempt is made to develop some theoretical understanding of the development of this activity among gay and bisexual adolescents. A predisposition, resulting from faulty psychosexual and psychosocial development, appears to make these boys vulnerable to the situational variables that they encounter. More severe disruptions in psychosexual and psychosocial development seem to result in more destructive and non-ego-enhancing prostitution activities. A clinical case study is presented which illustrates the development of this activity. Recommendations are made to help reduce the amount of self-destructive prostitution activity among male adolescents.

Comely, L. (1993). Lesbian and gay teenagers at school: How can educational psychologists help? Educational and Child Psychology, 10 (3), 22-24. Educational psychology (EP) training and service provision on lesbian and gay issues were surveyed by means of a mailed questionnaire. Responses were received from tutors on 85 percent (n=11) of all EP courses, and from Principal EPs of 35 percent (n=38) of all EP services in England and Wales. Analysis of the results shows serious failings in regard to lesbian and gay issues in training and service delivery.

Committee on Adolescence (1993). Homosexuality and Adolescence. The American Academy of Pediatrics issues its first statement on homosexuality in 1983. The decade that followed witnessed an increased awareness of homosexuality, changing attitudes toward this sexual orientation, and the growing impact of HIV. This is a timely updated statement on homosexuality. [SOD]

Cooley, J. J. (1998). Gay and lesbian adolescents: Presenting problems and the counselor's role. Professional School Counseling, 1 (Feb), 30-34. The author has identified five major presenting problems that gay and lesbian youth face: (1) the development of a social identity, (2) isolation, (3) educational issues, (4) family issues, and (5) health risks. Following a summary of research for each problem, the author identifies the counselor’s role for intervention, treatment, and/or instituting change.
Cramer, D. W., & Roach, A. J. (1988). Coming out to mom and dad: A study of gay males and their relationships with their parents. Journal of Homosexuality, 15 ( 3-4), 79-91. This study explores the relationships between gay men coming out to parents and specific perceived parental variables in an attempt to discriminate between parents who are more or less accepting. In addition, other factors such as how the disclosure occurs and reasons for coming out were investigated. Results indicated that most parents initially react negatively to the disclosure, but become more accepting over time. Parental values and characteristics associated with homophobia were found to be good predictors of the change in parent-son relationship following disclosure. However, the predictions were often in unexpected directions. The majority of respondents reported having a more positive relationship with their mothers than with their fathers, both before and after coming out.

D’Augelli, A. R. (1993). Preventing mental health problems among lesbian and gay college students. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 13 (4), 245-261. Young adults who self-identify as lesbian, gay, or bisexual experience major stresses in managing their sexual orientation. They are at risk for serious mental health problems, including suicide and depression. The mental health concerns of lesbian and gay male college students are reviewed. These problems result from the difficulties involved in developing a lesbian or gay personal identity, and are exacerbated by widespread negative attitudes, harassment, and violence directed toward lesbians and gay men on college campuses. Several systemic preventive interventions are recommended to decrease mental health problems in this population.

D’Augelli, A. R. (1992). Lesbian and gay male undergraduates’ experiences of harassment and fear on campus. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 7 (3), 383-395. Harassment and discrimination based on sexual orientation was studied in a sample of 121 undergraduate students between 19 and 22 years of age. Over three fourths of the respondents reported verbal abuse and over one fourth had been threatened with violence. Other students were the most frequent victimizers. Few reported victimization to authorities. Fear for one’s personal safety on campus was related to frequency of personal harassment. The implications of harassment and discrimination on the development of young lesbian and gay men are discussed.

D’Augelli (1991) Gay men in college: Identity processes and adaptations. Journal of College Student Development, 32, 140-146. Disclosure to families remains a major challenge for young gay men as they consolidate the many components of their personal identity in college. Although most lesbian and gay adults acknowledge their affectional orientation to themselves during adolescence, most have not come out by the time they enter a college or university. Only a small minority of lesbian and gay youth disclose in junior or senior high school, and these youth often suffer serious psychological and family consequences. For those who do go to college, the modal pattern is to disclose during their college years, away from the scrutiny of family and friends. [SOD]

D’Augelli, A. R. (1989). Lesbians’ and gay men’s experiences of discrimination and harassment in a university community. American Journal of Community Psychology, 17 (3), 317-321. A survey of 125 lesbians and gay men in a university community was conducted to determine the incidence of discrimination, harassment, and violence. Nearly three fourths had experienced verbal abuse; 26% were threatened with violence; and 17% had personal property damaged. Students and roommates were most often those responsible. Most incidents were not reported to authorities, and many made changes in their daily routines to avoid harm. Over half of the sample feared for their personal safety; their fear was related to the amount of harassment and previous property damage. Men were more often victimized than women.

D’Augelli, A. R., & Hershberger, S. L. (1993). Lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth in community settings: Personal challenges and mental health problems. American Journal of Community Psychology, 21 (4), 421-448. Studied 194 lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth aged 21 and younger who attended programs in 14 community centers to determine the personal challenges they face due to their sexual orientation and their responses to these stresses. First awareness of sexual orientation typically occurred at age 10, but disclosure to another person did not occur until about age 16. There was much variability in sexual behavior, and many youths reported both same-sex and opposite-sex sexual experiences. Although most had told at least one family member about their sexual orientation, there remained much concern about family reactions. Suicide attempts were acknowledged by 42% of the sample. Attempters significantly differed from nonattempters on several milestones of sexual orientation development, social aspects of sexual orientation, parents’ knowledge of sexual orientation, and mental health problems.

D’Augelli, A. R., Hershberger, S. L., & Pilkington, N. W. (1998). Lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth and their families: Disclosure of sexual orientation and its consequences. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 68 (3), 361-371. Lesbian, gay, and bisexual youngsters, aged 14-21 and living at home, were studied for patterns of disclosure of sexual orientation to families. Three-quarters had told at least one parent, more often the mother than the father. Those who had disclosed were generally more open about their sexual orientation than those who had not, and few of the nondisclosed expected parental acceptance. Those who had disclosed reported verbal and physical abuse by family members, and acknowledged more suicidality than those who had not “come out” to their families.

Davenport, C. W. (1986). A follow-up study of 10 feminine boys. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 15 (6), 511-517. Ten subjects who exhibited feminine behavior and cross-dressing as young boys are described. At follow-up, 8 to 10 years later, 4 are heterosexual, 2 are homosexual, 1 is transsexual, and the outcome is uncertain in 3. Of the eight who met DSM III criteria when evaluated, three are heterosexual, two are homosexual, one is transsexual, and the outcome is uncertain for two. Gender dysphoria appears to be a necessary but not sufficient factor in a transsexual outcome. The strength, rigidity, and persistence of cross-gender behavior through latency may be a good predictor of transsexual outcome. [SOD]

Dawson, J. M., Fitzpatrick, R. M., Reeves, G., Boulton, M., McLean, J., Hart, G. J., & Brookes, M. (1994). Awareness of sexual partners’ HIV status as an influence upon high-risk sexual behaviour among gay men. AIDS, 8, 837-841. Structured interviews and collection of saliva samples for anonymous linked testing for HIV-1 antibodies were conducted to evaluate the extent to which “high-risk” sexual behavior is influenced by awareness of partner’s HIV status among gay men. Men (n=677) who reported sexual contact with another man in the last 5 years were utilized. The majority of the respondents (63%) had had an HIV-antibody test. Analysis of data showed that in 15% of the respondents’ 1380 partnerships, HIV status was known by both parties. However, the majority of partnerships involved only safe sex. Only 26% of the partnerships in which unprotected penetrative anal sex had occurred involved mutual knowledge of HIV status and was most likely to occur with regular rather than non-clinical/casual partners. Logistic regression revealed that this latter association could not be explained in terms of mutual HIV status knowledge. Despite widespread HIV testing, the majority of gay men engaging in high-risk sex are unaware of their partner’s HIV status.

Day, N. E., Schoenrade, P. (1997). Staying in the closet versus coming out: Relationships between communication about sexual orientation and work attitudes. Personnel Psychology, 50, 147-163. The threat of job discrimination causes many gay men and lesbians to keep their sexual orientation secret at work. This study investigates the relationships between extent of communication about sexual orientation and critical work attitudes. We hypothesized that “closeted” gay workers will experience more negative work attitudes than will either “openly” gay or heterosexual workers. The sample consisted of 900 lesbian, gay, and heterosexual workers identified from the mailing list of a civil rights group focused on homosexual rights. The hypothesis is supported for affective organizational commitment, job satisfaction, belief in support of top management, role ambiguity, role conflict, and conflict between work and home issues, but not for continuance commitment. Although casual relationships are not specified, we conclude that work attitude levels of gay and lesbian workers are predicted in part by the amount of communication about their sexual orientation in which these workers engage.

Dean, L. & Meyer, I. (1995). HIV prevalence and sexual behavior in a cohort of New York City gay men (aged 18-24). Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology, 8, 208-211. An ethnically diverse cohort (n=174) of New York City gay men (aged 18-24) was studied to determine human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) prevalence and to document sexual behavior patterns. Blood tests of 87 men showed an HIV prevalence of 9%, but only 3% of the previously tested men (n=77) reported knowledge of a positive test result at baseline interview. An annual HIV seroconversion rate of 2% was observed. Ethnic minority men were more likely to test HIV positive. In addition, the median number of both sexual episodes and sex partners, and the proportion of men who engaged in anal intercourse, increased significantly for 1990 to 1991. During this 2-year period, 91% of the men engaged in unprotected receptive oral intercourse, and 37% engaged in unprotected receptive anal intercourse.

Dempsy, C. L. (1994). Health and social issues of gay, lesbian, and bisexual adolescents. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Human Services, March,160-167. Ten percent of the adolescent population in the United States is gay, lesbian, or bisexual. These teens are difficult to identify and many people are unaware of their existence, problems, and needs. The author reviews current professional and lay literature regarding social and health issues of adolescent homosexuality and presents implications for practitioners in providing comprehensive, culturally appropriate services for these individuals. [GMI]

De Wit, J. B. F., van den Hoek, J. A. R., Sandfort, T. G. M., & van Griensven, G. J. P. (1993). Increase in unprotected anogenital intercourse among homosexual men. American Journal of Public Health, 83 (10), 1451-1453. Results are presented from two sources, data of which indicate an increase in high-risk sexual behaviors from human immunodeficiency virus among homosexual men. The number of cases of gonorrhea among homosexual and bisexual visitors to municipal sexually transmitted disease clinics in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, is increasing. An increase was also observed in unprotected anogenital intercourse among homosexual participants in the Amsterdam cohort. These findings indicate that a rebound in the behavior change process among homosexual men is occurring. Furthermore, longitudinal behavioral data show that lapse and relapse into unsafe sex are prevalent in the Amsterdam cohort.

Dietz, T. J., & Dettlaff, A. (1997). The impact of membership in a support group for gay, lesbian and bisexual students. Journal of College Student Psychotherapy, 12 (1), 57-72. Many young people are enrolled in colleges and universities during the time they explore their sexual orientation. Although most gay, lesbian, and bisexual youth find ways of achieving positive and healthy identities as adults, many struggle and experience isolation and loneliness. A student organization which provides support for gay, lesbian, and bisexual students may help students through difficult times and facilitate the development of a positive identity. In-depth, qualitative interviews were conducted with 11 gay, lesbian, and bisexual students at a small, church-affiliated university to explore how their membership in a support group affected them. Benefits from group membership include meeting and being with others like themselves; having mentor relationships with other gays, lesbians, and bisexuals; and learning about issues related to homosexuality, all of which can have a positive impact on identity formation.

Dombrowski, D., Wodarski, J. S., Smokowski, P. R., & Bricout, J. C. (1996). School-based social work interventions with gay and lesbian adolescents: Theoretical and practice guidelines. Journal of Applied Social Sciences, 20 (1), 51-61. Adolescents are faced with many obstacles. Many issues affect their lives on a daily basis and have an effect on how they develop into adults. Gay or lesbian adolescents must face the same barriers that normal adolescents face, in addition to the homophobic fears of society. Society’s negativism about gay and lesbian adolescents affects their self-concept and self-esteem, as well as their social interactions with family and friends. Along with the increased risk of contracting sexually transmitted diseases, such as AIDS, these factors bring great stress and fear into the lives of gay and lesbian adolescents. This article addresses the dynamics behind homophobia and proposes an intervention paradigm to help ameliorate the problem.

Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (1999). The origins of sex differences in human behavior. American Psychologist, 54 (6), 408-423. The origins of sex differences in human behavior can lie mainly in evolved dispositions that differ by sex or mainly in the differing placement of women and men in the social structure. The present article contrasts these 2 origin theories of sex differences and illustrates the explanatory power of each to account for the overall differences between the mate selection preferences of men and women. Although this research area often has been interpreted as providing evidence for evolved dispositions, a reanalysis of D. M. Buss’s (1989) study of sex differences in the attributes valued in potential mates in 37 cultures yielded cross-cultural variation that supports the social structural account of sex differences in mate preferences. [SOD]

Edwards, A. T. (1997). Let's stop ignoring our gay and lesbian students. Educational Leadership, 54, 68-70. The author works in Stratford, Connecticut, where they are working to break the silence of homosexuality and provide a safe, supportive climate that includes all students. Part of their work includes supporting parents seeking understanding, helping students find allies, and providing an accepting school environment

Edwards, W. J. (1996). Operating within the mainstream: Coping and adjustment among a sample of homosexual youths. Deviant Behavior, 17 (2), 229-251. A sample (N=37) of African American adolescent homosexual males was administered a questionnaire that focused on four areas of social psychological functioning (self-identity, family relation, school-work relations, and social adjustment). The findings contradicted several past studies that reported in general that homosexual males experience crippling cognitive dissonance. Even with the existence of homophobia in the society, the adolescents were found to possess an adequate social psychological attitude and survival skills. The sampled adolescents reported being comfortable with their sexual orientation even though the majority of them had not disclosed their homosexuality. The respondents reported how they managed self-presentation among heterosexual persons. The adolescents appeared well-adjusted and stable in their social functioning and disagreed with the idea that they needed professional counseling.

Edwards, W. J. (1996). A sociological analysis of an invisible minority group: Male adolescent homosexuals. Youth and Society, 27 (3), 334-355. This article examines the following areas of 37 Black male adolescents (age range: 16-21): self-identity, family relation, school/work relations, and social adjustment. Information about these areas was collected by using a Likert-type questionnaire that required the respondents to select the answers true or false. A majority of the respondents were comfortable with their sexual identity, although all of them were passing as heterosexuals. A sexual history of the respondents is presented. Even though the respondents understand their sexual minority status, it has not deterred the development of a positive and well-integrated self-perception.

Einhorn, L., & Poglar, M. (1994). HIV-risk behavior among lesbians and bisexual women. AIDS Education and Prevention, 514-523. Although limited available data suggest that AIDS is currently less common among lesbians than among heterosexual women, this study suggests considerable HIV-risk behavior among our sample of lesbians and bisexual women. In addition, a majority of respondents, including women at risk, do not use safer-sex practices.

Elia, J. P. (1994). Homophobia in high school: A problem in need of a resolution. High School Journal, 77 (1-2), 177-185. The purposes of this article are to: (1) define and discuss various forms of homophobia in the high school environment; (2) explore the ways in which homophobia negatively influences all high school students; and (3) propose actions to help combat homophobia and lessen its magnitude in the schools and, ultimately, throughout society. This article is an effort to continue both the dialogue about this serious problem as well as to assist with the herculean task of creating safe, equitable, and supportive schools.

Ellis-Stoess, L. (1996). Tolerating tolerance in the classroom. Journal of Law and Education, 25, 181-189. Homosexuality is a highly emotional issue, and people are divided as to whether discussions about it have a place in the classroom. This article examines several court battles that epitomize the arguments of parents and educators. The purpose of this discussion is to guide educators through this controversial subject and diffuse the potential for turmoil in the school system.

Epstein, D. (1997). Boyz' own stories: Masculinities and sexualities in schools. Gender and Education, 9 (1), 105-115. In this paper, the author draws on ethographic work to argue that schools are highly sexualized sites, within which struggles around sexuality are pervasive, of consuming interest and, at the same time, taboo. The author suggests that struggles around sexuality are intimately connected with struggles around gender, and that the explicit homophobia and implicit heterosexism found within schools derives from and feeds macho and misogynistic versions of masculinity. The paper suggests further that it is impossible to develop a full understanding of gender relations in schools without examining them in the context of compulsory heterosexuality.

Faulkner, A. H., & Cranston, K. (1998). Correlates of same-sex sexual behavior in a random sample of Massachusetts high school students. American Journal of Public Health, 88 (2), 262-266. This study documented risk behaviors among homosexually and bisexually experienced adolescents. Data were obtained from a random sample of high school students in Massachusetts. Violence, substance use, and suicide behaviors were compared between students with same-sex experience and those reporting only heterosexual contact. Differences in prevalence and standard errors of the differences were calculated. Students reporting same-sex contact were more likely to report fighting and victimization, frequent use of alcohol, other drug use, and recent suicidal behaviors. Students with same-sex experience may be at elevated risk of injury, disease, and death resulting from violence, substance abuse, and suicidal behaviors.

Ferraro, F. R., & Dukart, A. (1998). Cognitive inhibition in individuals prone to homophobia. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 54, (2), 155-162. Individuals scoring either High, Medium, or Low on the Homosexism Short-Form Scale (Hansen, 1982) made speeded decisions to neutral (N), mildly provocative (MP), or very provocative (VP) statements regarding issues related to homophobia. These three groups did not differ on age, education, reading rate, or vocabulary ability. It was predicted that individuals High in homophobia would produce faster reaction times to the VP sentences than those individuals scoring Medium or Low in homophobia. Results indicated the opposite pattern. Individuals scoring High in homophobia actually had slower reaction times to VP sentences than did either the Medium or Low homophobia individuals. Results are discussed within an inhibitory framework related to the High homophobia individuals’ overall homophobia schema.

Fikar, C. R. (1992). The gay pediatrician: A report. Journal of Homosexuality, 23, (3), 53-63. Since no articles in the medical literature could be found dealing with the subject of the pediatrician, a complete bibliographic search was conducted in order to find information about gay health professional. Using both manual and computerized methods of access to information in many data bases, much pertinent material was found. Reports were accessed which demonstrated that gay pediatricians most certainly exist and that, in addition to their standard role in pediatric and adolescent medicine, they have special and unique contributions to make to the care or our nation’s 2.9 million gay youth. Gay pediatricians need to be accepted as valuable professionals by peers and by society. Whenever possible, gay pediatricians need to act as role models to our gay youth. Pediatricians who happen to be gay have much to contribute to medicine.

Fontaine, J. H. (1998). Evidencing a need: School counselor's experience with gay and lesbian students. Professional School Counseling, 1 (3), 8-14. The study presented here seeks to identify the extent of contact school counselors have had with homosexual youth. Data were collected from K-12 counselors because it was believed that counseling needs can exist at any grade level. The study also includes data collected regarding current school environments and policies toward both racial and sexual minorities. School counselors’ knowledge about homosexual issues was also surveyed. Information was also collected on issues of professional development, that is, how counselors acquired their knowledge of homosexuality and what they perceived as resources that would be helpful to them and other school personnel in expanding their knowledge.

Fontaine, J. H. & Hammond, N. L. (1996). Counseling issues with gay and lesbian adolescents. Adolescence, 31 (124), 817-830. Few resources are available to counselors working with lesbian and gay adolescents. This article seeks to bridge the gulf between the life experiences of these teens and those of the counselor by providing information on sexual identity formation, increased mental health risk factors for gay and lesbian youth, coming out issues, and barriers to supportive interventions (given the hidden nature of much of this population within the schools and the world at large). Specific suggestions regarding how mental health counselors can assist these adolescents are provided.

Franke, R., & Leary, M. R. (1991). Disclosure of sexual orientation by lesbians and gay men: A comparison of private and public processes. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 10 (3), 262-269. Analyses of the “coming out” process posit two distinct mediators of the willingness to disclose one’s homosexuality to others. Whereas some analyses focus on the individual’s self-acceptance of his or her sexual orientation, others implicate gays’ concerns with others’ reactions to such disclosures. This study tested the efficacy of these models. One hundred and eighty-four lesbians and gay men completed a questionnaires that included, among other things, two measures of openness regarding their sexual orientation. On both indices, subjects’ concerns with others’ evaluations predicted substantially more of the variance in openness than the degree to which they accepted their own sexuality.

Friedman, R. C., & Downey, J. (1993). Neurobiology and sexual orientation: Current relationships. Journal of Neuropsychiatry, 5, 131-153. Despite great progress in the neurosciences, or understanding of the determinants of sexual orientation is incomplete. The authors review for the clinician/neuropsychiatrist studies pertaining to the formation of sexual orientation in the following areas: hormone effects on sexual behavior (animal and human); the complicated relationship between gender identity, gender role, and sexual orientation in humans; cross-cultural studies of homosexuality; behavioral observations in psuedohermaphrodites and offspring of mothers treated with hormones during pregnancy; brain studies of homosexual and heterosexual individuals; and genetic studies. The authors conclude that human sexual orientation is complex and diversely experienced and that a biopsychosocial model best fits the current state of knowledge. [SOD]

Frieman, B. B., O'Hara, H., & Settel, J. (1996). What heterosexual teachers need to know about homosexuality. Childhood Education, 73, 40-42. The authors give a brief summary of current thinking on the development of homosexuality. They then describe what life is like for the gay student in elementary school and what teachers can do to make a positive difference in these student’s lives.

Garnets, L., Herek, G. M, & Levy, B. (1990). Violence and victimization of lesbians and gay men: Mental health consequences. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 5 (3), 366-383. This article describes some of the major psychosocial challenges faced by lesbians and gay male survivors of hate crimes, their significant others, and the gay community as a whole. When an individual is attacked because she or he is perceived to be gay, the negative mental health consequences of victimization converge with those resulting from societal heterosexism to create a unique set of problems. Such victimization represents a crisis for the individual, creating opportunities for growth as well as risks for impairment. The principal risk associated with anti-gay victimization is that the survivor’s homosexuality becomes directly linked to her or his newly heightened sense of vulnerability. The problems faced by lesbian and gay male victims of sexual assault, and the psychological impact of verbal abuse also are discussed. Suggestions are offered to assist practitioners in helping the survivors to anti-gay crimes.

Garofalo, R., Wolf, R. C., Kessel, S., Palfrey, J., & DuRant, R.H. (1998). The association between health risk behaviors and sexual orientation among a school-based sample of adolescents. Pediatrics,101 (5), 895-902. This study is one of the first to examine the association between sexual orientation and health risk behaviors among a representative, school-based sample of adolescents. Students from public high schools in Massachusetts (4159 9th to 12th graders) were used. A total of 104 students self-identified as gay, lesbian, or bisexual (GLB), representing 2.5% of the overall population. Heath risk and problem behaviors were analyzed comparing GLB youth and their peers. GLB youth who self-identify during high school report disproportionate risk for a variety of health risk and problem behaviors, including suicide, victimization, sexual risk behaviors, and multiple substance use. In addition, these youth are more likely to report engaging in multiple risk behaviors and initiating risk behaviors at an earlier age than are their peers. These findings suggest that educational efforts, prevention programs, and health services must be designed to address the unique needs of GLB youth.

Garofalo, R., Wolf, R. C., Wissow, L. S., Woods, E. R., Goodman, E. (1999). Sexual Orientation and risk of suicide attempts among a representative sample of youth. Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine 153 (5), 487-493. This article examines whether sexual orientation is an independent risk factor for reported suicide attempts. Data were obtained from the Massachusetts 1995 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Youth Risk Behavior Survey, which included a question on sexual orientation. Ten drug use, 5 sexual behavior, and 5 violence/victimization variables chosen a priori were assessed as possible mediating variables.

Gerstel, C. J., Feraios, A. J., & Herdt, G. (1989). Widening circles: An ethnographic profile of a youth group. Journal of Homosexuality, 17 (1-2), 75-92. This article introduces work-in-progress on the ethnography of a gay and lesbian youth group in Chicago. The surrounding neighborhood is sketched and aspects of the supporting agency, within which the group functions, are described. Both are seen as contributing contexts for the coming out process here. The youth group is described in part, including the age, ethnicity, and related factors of its composition. Youth are found to be involved in a process of dual socialization entailing roles and knowledge in the gay and straight normative communities.

Ginsberg, R. W. (1998). Silenced voices within our schools. Initiatives, 58 (3), 1-15. In the course of teaching sociology for four semesters at a New England college, the author had three students (two male, one female) who used their term papers to come out to their teacher. The author describes why researching gays/lesbians and their school experience is necessary, and why doing so through the voices of gay/lesbian students is essential.

Gold, R. S., & Skinner, M. J. (1992). Situational factors and thought processes associated with unprotected intercourse in young gay men. AIDS, 6, 1021-1030. In structured interviews, gay men aged 15-21 years were asked to recall two sexual encounters from the preceding 6 months: one in which they had had unprotected anal intercourse (“unsafe” encounter) and one in which they had resisted a strong temptation to have unprotected intercourse (“safe” encounter). We studied both types of encounter to enable identification of situational variables distinguishing between them in order to investigate (1) the types of justifications, if any, that young gay men give themselves at the time they make the decision to have unprotected anal intercourse and (2) the types of occasion on which they are most at risk of having unprotected intercourse. The first two factors that emerged from a Factor Analysis of the self-justification data (“unsafe” encounter, n=219) involved, respectively, high-risk behavior in response to a negative mood state and inferring from perceptible characteristics that the partner was unlikely to be infected. The most commonly reported self-justification was this latter type. In respondents recalling both encounters (n=115), sexual desires, mood, communication, and use of “dirty talk” distinguished between the encounters. In contrast, type of partner, consumption of alcohol or drugs, desire for excitement, and use of pornography did not. Results are discussed in relation to those obtained in our earlier study of older gay men. Young gay men appear to be more single-minded about what they want to do sexually, and more likely to infer from perceptible characteristics that their partner is unlikely to be infected. In young gay men, a negative mood state is associated with unsafe sex, an opposite finding to that obtained with older gay men. The results also suggest the possible importance of failure to communicate about desires concerning safe sex and the use of “dirty talk;” these may help to facilitate the occurrence of unsafe sex.

Good, T. L. (Ed.) (1999). Non-subject matter outcomes of schooling. The Elementary School Teacher, 99 (5), 383-519. A special issue on nonsubject-matter outcomes of schooling. Articles discuss fifth- and seventh-grade girls’ decisions about participation in physical activity, a broader agenda for school reform, an embedded classroom approach to preventing high-risk behaviors among preadolescents, service-learning, self-regulation in democratic communities, teachers’ moral authority in classrooms and gender, and understanding diversity and promoting tolerance with regard to gay, lesbian, and bisexual youth in schools.

Green, R., Roberts, C. W., Williams, K., Goodman, M. et al (1987). Specific cross gender behaviour in boyhood and later homosexual orientation. British Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 84-88. Data from a group of males aged 13 to 23, who as children exhibited extensive cross-gender behavior, was analyzed. In boyhood they frequently played with dress-up dolls, role-played as females, dressed in girls clothes, stated the wish to be girls, primarily had girls as friends, and avoided rough-and-tumble play. The majority of the group evolved a bisexual or homosexual orientation; two types of behavior, boyhood doll play and female role-playing, were found to be associated with later homosexual orientation. The findings suggest developmental associations between specific types of boyhood cross-gender behavior and the objects of later sexual arousal.

Greene, J. M., Ennett, S. T., & Ringwalt, C. L. (1999). Prevalence and correlates of survival sex among runaway and homeless youth. American Journal of Public Health, 89, (9), 1406-1409. A nationally representative sample of shelter youths and a multi-city sample of street youths were interviewed to examine the prevalence and correlates of survival sex among runaway and homeless youths. Approximately 28% of street youth and 10% of shelter youths reported having practiced in survival sex, which was associated with age, days away from home, victimization, criminal behaviors, substance use, suicide attempts, sexually transmitted disease, and pregnancy. Intensive and ongoing services are needed to provide resources and residential assistance to enable runaway and homeless youths to avoid survival sex, which is associated with many problem behaviors.

Griffin, P. (1994). Homophobia in sport: Addressing the needs of lesbian and gay high school athletes. High School Journal, 77 (1-2), 80-87. The purpose of this article is to describe some unique aspects of heterosexism and homophobia as they affect lesbian and gay athletes on high school sports teams. These include: (a) what accounts for the intense homophobia in athletics? (b)How does homophobia affect gay male and lesbian athletes? (c) What can high schools do to address homophobia in athletics?

Grossman, A. H. (1997). Growing up with a "spoiled identity": Lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth at risk. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services, 6 (3), 45-56. Being a lesbian, gay or bisexual youth means having the stigma of homosexuality or bisexuality. A stigma is anything that discredits an individual and leads to one being assigned a spoiled identity. With reference to lesbian, gay and bisexual youth, the stigma is considered a blemish on one’s character that often leads to stereotyping and stigmatization. This homophobia puts many lesbian, gay and bisexual youth at risk for suicide, chemical abuse, dropping out of school, verbal and physical abuse, homelessness, prostitution, HIV infection, and psychosocial developmental delays. Approaches and strategies for working with lesbian, gay and bisexual youth are suggested and trends and issues about homosexuality in the United States, with a potential impact on lesbian, gay and bisexual youth, are discussed.

Grossman, A. H. (1995). Until there is acceptance. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, April, 47-48. Until there is acceptance of lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth by mainstream institutions, there is a need for special services. Recreation and social activities empower gay and lesbian youth to overcome the shame and self-hatred society places on them.

Grossman, A. H. (1992). Inclusion, not exclusion: Recreation service delivery to lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 63, 45-47. Prejudice and stigmatization experienced by lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth, the resulting isolation of these youth, and approaches that recreation and education professionals can use to create nonthreatening, supportive environments that are inclusive of lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth are discussed in this article.

Grossman, A. H., & Kerner, M. S. (1998). Self-esteem and supportiveness as predictors of emotional distress in gay male and lesbian youth. Journal of Homosexuality, 32 (2), 25-39. Many gay male and lesbian youth experience isolation, self-hatred, and other emotional stressors related to harassment and abuse from peers and adults, leading to risk factors associated with alcohol and substance abuse, suicide, prostitution, running away, and school problems. Research findings have indicated that high levels of self-esteem and social supports may moderate gay-identified stressors. The current study examined self-esteem and satisfaction with supportiveness as predictors of emotional distress in a sample of 90 self-identified urban gay male and lesbian youth. The sample of 58 gay male and 32 lesbian youth (ages 14 to 21 years) were predominately black and Latino/a. Findings indicated self-esteem as a predictor of moderate strength for emotional distress for the total and male samples; however, it proved to be a strong predictor for the female sample. Satisfaction with supportiveness, however, proved to be insignificant in explaining the variance of emotional distress. As the latter is contrary to anecdotal evidence, it is recommended that future studies examine satisfaction with specific types of supportiveness rather than the global measure used in the current study.

Grubb, P. F. (1987). Reading about homosexuality. Journal of Homosexuality, 13 (2-3), 121-135. A study was conducted to access the importance of reading about experiences on homosexuality for adolescents and post-adolescents. Although no conclusive evidence could be found to link their reading experience to later experiences as a means of instigating change or providing role models, the author suggests that reading materials can be influential.

Gwadz, M., & Rotheram-Borus, M. J. (1992). Tracking high-risk adolescents longitudinally. AIDS Education and Prevention, Supplement, 69-82. Longitudinal tracking methods rarely have been documented. A discussion is provided here of tracking methods and strategies used in assessing the effectiveness of an AIDS prevention intervention with high-risk adolescents over four years. We demonstrated an ability to follow 92% of a sample of unstable youths in a difficult urban environment. Successful recontacting of youths depended on the structure of the project in the recruitment phases, strategic choice of interviewers, a cost-effective payment schedule and other motivators, knowledge of appropriate social service agencies that could provide information on youths, and methods to elicit cooperation. Confidentiality and other ethical issues are discussed.

Hammelman, T. L. (1993). Gay and lesbian youth: Contributing factors to serious attempts or considerations of suicide. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Psychotherapy, 2 (1), 77-89. This is a study of gay and lesbian youths’ tendencies for suicide and the extent to which these tendencies are influenced by sexual orientation, violence, age, substance abuse, physical or emotional abuse, family rejection, or gender. Based on a sample of 48 respondents, nearly one-half seriously considered suicide while one-third actually attempted suicide. Close to three-quarters of this population cited sexual orientation as some or most of the reason for their suicide consideration or attempt with the majority revealing that they had done so at age 17 or before. Fifty percent or more of those who (1) had a substance abuse problem, (2) were physically or emotionally abused, or (3) experienced family rejection, reported that sexual orientation was the main reason for these problems. These results are clinically significant for therapists who work with this population. The mere existence of suicide considerations or attempts because of sexual orientation calls for a proactive stance which includes conducting a thorough psycho-social assessment, performing crisis intervention and assisting youth to increase their coping mechanisms.

Harrington-Lueker, D. (1996). Surviving the gay-rights furor. The Education Digest, 62, 56-59. This article describes some incidences when school districts struggled with addressing gay and lesbian issues in public schools. Those who have wrestled with homosexuality and the public schools off this advice: (1) don’t stifle discussion, (2) pay attention to your policies and procedures, (3) anticipate problem areas, and get your community involved, (4) vote and get on with it, and (5) don’t rush into making new policy, you might not need one.

Harry, J. (1993). Being out: A general model. Journal of Homosexuality, 26 (1), 25-39. It is argued that being out to heterosexuals is a result of structural and individual conditions permitting one to be out, rather that a late stage in a process of coming out. The concept of coming out is largely applicable to the transitions to adulthood while having little applicability to adult homosexuals. Data on 1,556 gay men are presented showing the relationships of being out to heterosexuals with income, type of occupation, area of residence, sexual orientation of friends, and individual non-conformity. These data show that much variation in being out can be explained by these factors rather than a stage of the coming out process.

Herek, G. M. (1989). Hate crimes against lesbians and gay men. American Psychologist, 44 (6), 948-955. Antigay hate crimes (words or actions that are intended to harm or intimidate individuals because they are lesbian or gay) constitute a serious national problem. In recent surveys, as many as 92% of lesbians and gay men report that they have been the targets of antigay verbal abuse or threats, and as many as 24% report physical attacks because of their sexual orientation. Assaults may have increased in frequency during the last few years, with many incidents now including spoken references to the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome by the assailants. Trends cannot be assessed, however, because most antigay hate crimes are never reported and no comprehensive national surveys of antigay victimization have been conducted. Suggestions are offered for research and policy.

Herek, G. M., & Capitanio, J. P. (1996). "Some of my best friends": Intergroup contact, concealable stigma, and heterosexuals' attitudes toward gay men and lesbians. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22 (4), 412-424. In a two-wave national telephone survey, a probability sample of English-speaking adults indicated their attitudes toward gay men at Wave I (1990-1991; n=538) and toward both gay men and lesbians approximately one year later (n=328 at Wave II). At Wave I, heterosexuals reporting interpersonal contact (31.3%) manifested more positive attitudes toward gay men than those without contact. Their attitudes were more favorable to the extent that they reported more relationships, closer relationships, and having received direct disclosure about another’s homosexuality. At Wave II, these findings were generally replicated for attitudes toward lesbians as well as gay men. Cross-wave analyses suggest a reciprocal relationship between contact and attitudes. Theoretical and policy implications of the results are discussed, with special attention to the role of interpersonal disclosure in reducing stigma based on a concealable status.

Hershberger, S. L., & D’Augelli, A. R. (1995). The impact of victimization on the mental health and suicidality of lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths. Developmental Psychology, 31 (1), 65-74. Lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths 15 to 21 years old were studied to determine the impact of verbal abuse, threat of attacks, and assault on their mental health, including suicide. Family support and self-acceptance were hypothesized to act as mediators of the victimization and mental health-suicide relation. Structural equation modeling revealed that in addition to a direct effect of victimization on mental health, family support and self-acceptance in concert mediated the victimization and mental health relation. Victimization was not directly related to suicide. Victimization interacted with family support to influence mental health, but only for low levels of victimization.

Hershberger, S. L., Pilkington, N. W., & D'Augelli, A. R. (1997). Predictors of suicide attempts among gay, lesbian, and bisexual youth. Journal of Adolescent Research, 12 (4), 477-497. This research identified predictors of past suicide attempts in 194 lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth, 15 through 21 years of age, who attended social and recreational groups in urban community settings. In comparison to youth who made no suicide attempts, attempters reported that they had disclosed more completely their sexual orientation to others, had lost more friends because of their disclosures, and had experienced more victimization due to their sexual orientation. Suicide attempters had lower self-esteem and acknowledged more mental health problems. The loss of friends due to youth’s sexual orientation, and current suicidal ideation were among the strongest predictors of suicide attempts. Youth who reported early awareness of their sexual orientation, disclosure to family and friends, peer rejection, and victimization based on their sexual orientation may be at risk for mental health problems.

Hetrick, E. S., & Martin, A. D. (1987). Developmental issues and their resolution for gay and lesbian adolescents. Journal of Homosexuality, 14 (1-2), 25-43. The primary task for homosexually oriented adolescents is adjustment to a socially stigmatized role. Although the individual homosexual adolescent reacts with diversity and great resilience to societal pressures, most pass through a turbulent period that carries the risk of maladaptive behaviors that may affect adult performance. Despite individual variation, certain issues have been found to concern most homosexual adolescents. Empirical data from the Institute for the Protection of Lesbian and Gay Youth, Inc. in New York City suggests that isolation, family violence, educational issues, emotional stresses, shelter, and sexual abuse are the main concerns of youth entering the program. If not resolved, the social, cognitive, and emotional isolation may extend into adulthood, and anxiety, depressive symptoms, alienation, self-hatred, and demoralization may result. In a non-threatening supportive environment that provides accurate information and appropriate peer and adult role models, many of the concerns are alleviated and internalized negative attitudes are either modified or prevented from developing. The authors discuss the effects of prejudice and the impact of negative societal attitudes on the developing social and personal identities of homosexual youths. [SOD]

Holtzen, D. W., & Agresti, A. A. (1990). Parental responses to gay and lesbian children: Differences in homophobia, self-esteem, and sex-role stereotyping. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 9 (3), 390-399. This study investigated parental reactions to knowledge of a child’s gay or lesbian sexuality. Parents (N=55) of gay and lesbian children completed several measurements measuring homophobia, self-esteem, attitudes toward women, and social behavior. Parents with high homophobia were significantly different than parents with low homophobia in that homophobia scores correlated negatively with all measures. Also, the amount of time a parent has known of his or her child’s sexuality in combination with the parents sex-role stereotypes proved a good predictor of his or her homophobia score. Implications of these findings with regard to an understanding of homophobia are discussed, as well as the possible impact of homophobia on the self-esteem and the sex role attitudes of parents, and gay and lesbian children.

Holtzen, D. W., Kenny, M. E., & Mahalik, J. R. (1995). Contributions of parental attachment to gay or lesbian disclosure to parents and dysfunctional cognitive processes. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 42 (3), 350-355. This study examined the relationship among parental attachment, sexual self-disclosure to parents, and dysfunctional cognitions in a sample of 113 gay and lesbian adults. The results revealed that characteristics of secure attachment to mother and father were positively associated with disclosure to parents and length of time since disclosure, and they were negatively associated with self-reports of dysfunctional cognitions. These results suggest that attachment quality warrants further investigation as a factor that may facilitate disclosure to parents and reduce the risk for dysfunctional cognitions.